Sailing is the art of controlling
a sailing vessel.
By adjusting the rigging, rudder and dagger or
centre board, a sailor manages the force of the wind on the sails
(main and/or jib) in order to change the direction and speed of a
boat.
Mastery of the skill requires experience in varying wind and
sea conditions, as well as knowledge concerning sailboats.
Today
most people enjoy sailing as a recreational activity. Recreational
sailing can be further divided into racing, cruising and
"daysailing" or dinghy sailing.
Throughout history sailing has been instrumental in the development
of civilization.
The earliest representation of a ship under sail
appears on an Egyptian vase from about 3500 BC.Advances in sailing
technology from the 15th century onward enabled European explorers
in Canada to make longer voyages into regions with extreme weather
and climatic conditions. Improvements were made in the design of
sails, masts and rigging, and navigational equipment became more
sophisticated.
Ships went further north, stayed longer on the Grand
Banks and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and eventually began to
explore the Pacific Northwest and the Western Arctic.
Steering and turning
When steering a sailboat, the method for changing direction depends
on the direction of the wind. Thus, all direction changes or turns
are described by one of the following terms:
• Heading up (or luffing up) means steering so the wind is closer to
coming from directly in front (or "on the bow"). Heading closer to
the wind requires trimming the sails, pulling them towards the
vessel's center. Heading up so the wind is nearly or directly ahead
causes sails to luff, to flutter without achieving lift. If the boat
loses maneuverability because of this, it is said to be in irons.
• Tacking (or coming about), one of the basic turning techniques,
requires bringing the bow of the boat through the wind so that the
wind then comes across the opposite side of the boat, and the boat
sails away on the opposite tack.
• Heading down, bearing off, bearing away, falling off and freeing
off mean steering so the wind comes from closer to the vessel's aft.
This requires easing sails, letting them out away from the vessel's
center.
• Gybing or Jibing is the turning maneuver in which the boat heads
down past the point where the wind crosses the vessel's stern, which
causes the sails and boom to swing to the opposite side, before the
boat sails off on the opposite tack. The sail and boom can cross the
centerline of the boat with significant speed, and misjudged gybing
can easily capsize a small boat, harm inattentive crew, or damage
the rig in a larger boat, especially in strong winds.
• An easy way to tell the difference between Gybing (Jibing) and
Tacking, is by looking at what part of the boat crosses through
'Irons' (straight into the wind). If the front of the boat (the bow)
crosses through the wind, you have completed a Tack, while if the
back of the boat (the stern) crosses Irons, you will have Gybed
(Jibed).
Trim
An important aspect of sailing is keeping the boat in "trim". To
achieve this a useful mnemonic (memory aid) is the phrase:
Can This Boat Sail Correctly?
This helps the crew to remember these essential points;
• Course to Steer - Turn the boat using the wheel or tiller to the
desired course to steer. See points of sail. This may be a definite
bearing (e.g steer 270 degrees), or towards a landmark, or at a
desired angle to the apparent wind direction.
• Trim - This is the fore and aft balance of the boat. The aim is to
adjust the moveable ballast (the crew!) forwards or backwards to
achieve an 'even keel'. On an upwind course in a small boat, the
crew typically sit forward, when 'running' it is more efficient for
the crew to sit to the rear of the boat. The position of the crew
matters less as the size (and weight) of the boat increases.
• Balance - This is the port and starboard balance. The aim, once
again is to adjust weight 'inboard' or 'outboard' to prevent
excessive heeling.
• Sail - Trimming sails is a large topic. Simply put however, a sail
should be pulled in until it fills with wind, but no further than
the point where the front edge of the sail (the luff) is exactly in
line with the wind.
• Centreboard - If a moveable centreboard is fitted, then it should
be lowered when sailing "close to the wind" but can be raised up on
downwind courses to reduce drag. The centreboard prevents lateral
motion and allows the boat to sail upwind. A boat with no
centreboard will instead have a permanent keel, some other form of
underwater foil, or even the hull itself which serves the same
purpose.
Together, these points are known as 'The Five Essentials' and
constitute the central aspects of sailing.
Running
Sailing the boat within roughly 30 degrees either side of dead
downwind is called a run.
This is the easiest point of sail in terms
of comfort, but it can also be the most dangerous.
When sailing
upwind, it's easy to stop the boat by heading into the wind; a
sailor has no such easy out when running.
Severe rolling is more
likely as there is less rolling resistance provided by the sails,
which are eased out. And loss of attention by the helmsman could
lead the boat to gybe accidentally, causing injury to the boat or
crew.
(A preventer can be rigged to prevent damage from an
accidental gybe.)
Alternately, if there is a sudden increase in wind
strength, the boat can round up very suddenly and heel excessively,
often leading to a capsize in smaller boats. This is called
broaching.
Reaching
When the boat is traveling approximately perpendicular to the wind,
this is called reaching. A 'beam' reach is with the wind precisely
at right angles to the boat, while a 'close' reach is halfway
between beating and a beam reach, and a 'broad' reach is a little
bit away from the wind.
For most modern sailboats, that is boats with triangular sails,
reaching is the fastest way to travel.
The direction of the wind is
ideal for reaching because it will maximize the lift generated on
the sails in the forward direction of the boat, giving the best boat
speed.
Also when reaching, the boat can be steered exactly in the
direction that is most desirable, and the sails can be trimmed for
that direction.
Reaching however may put the boat on a parallel course with the
waves. When the waves are steep, it may be necessary to sail closer
to the wind to avoid waves directly on the beam.
Sailing upwind
A basic rule of sailing is that it is not possible to sail directly
into the wind—at least not for long. Generally speaking, a boat can
sail 45 degrees off the wind. When a boat is sailing this close to
the wind, it is close-hauled or beating (beating to weather).
Since a boat cannot sail directly into the wind, but the destination
is often upwind, one can only get there by sailing close-hauled with
the wind coming from the port side (the boat is on port tack), then
tacking (turning the boat through the eye of the wind) and sailing
with the wind coming from the starboard side (the boat is on
starboard tack).
By this method, it is possible to reach that
destination directly upwind. The heavier the wind, the rougher the
seas, thus boat movement can be more uncomfortable. This can feel
like the boat is beating its hull into the waves, hence the term
beating.
For a yacht beating upwind to a mark at a distance upwind
of one mile, it will cover a distance through the water of over 1.42
miles, if it can tack through an angle of 90 degrees. An old adage
describes beating as sailing for twice the distance at half the
speed and three times the discomfort.
How closely a boat can sail into the wind depends on the boat's
design, sail trim, the sea state, and the wind speed, since what the
boat "sees" is the apparent wind, the vector sum of the actual wind
and the negation of the boat's own velocity.
The apparent wind speed
is what the anemometer on top of the mast shows. The apparent wind
angle while sailing close hauled will be less than the true wind
angle. A good, modern sloop can sail within 25 degrees of the
apparent wind. An America's Cup racing sloop can sail within 16
degrees—under ideal conditions. Those figures might translate into
45 degrees and 36 degrees relative to the actual wind, depending on
boat speed.
Reducing sail
An important safety aspect of sailing is to adjust the amount of
sail to suit the wind conditions.
As the wind speed increases the
crew should progressively reduce the amount of sail. On a small boat
with only jib and mainsail this is done by furling the jib and by
partially lowering the mainsail, a process called 'reefing the
main'.
Reefing means reducing the area of a sail without actually changing
it for a smaller sail. Ideally reefing does not only result in a
reduced sail area but also in a lower center of effort from the
sails, reducing the heeling moment and keeping the boat more
upright.
There are three common methods of reefing the mainsail:
• Slab reefing, which involves lowering the sail by about
one-quarter to one-third of its luff length and tightening the lower
part of the sail using an outhaul or a pre-loaded reef line through
a cringle at the new clew, and hook through a cringle at the new
tack.
• In-mast (or on-mast) roller-reefing. This method rolls the sail up
around a vertical foil either inside a slot in the mast, or affixed
to the outside of the mast. It requires a mainsail with either no
battens, or newly-developed vertical battens.
• In-boom roller-reefing, with a horizontal foil inside the boom.
This method allows for standard- or full-length horizontal battens.
Mainsail furling systems have become increasingly popular on
cruising yachts as they can be operated shorthanded and from the
cockpit in most cases, however, the sail can become jammed in the
mast or boom slot if not operated correctly.
Mainsail furling is
almost never used while racing because it results in a less
efficient sail profile. The classical slab-reefing method is the
most widely used. Mainsail furling has an additional disadvantage in
that its complicated gear may somewhat increase weight aloft.
However, as the size of the boat increases, the benefits of mainsail
roller furling increase dramatically.
Sail trimming
As noted above, sail trimming is a large subject. Basic control of
the mainsail consists of setting the sail so that it is at an
optimum angle to the wind, (i.e. no flapping at the front, and tell
tales flowing evenly off the rear of the sail).
Two or more sails are frequently combined to maximize the smooth
flow of air. The sails are adjusted to create a smooth laminar flow
over the sail surfaces. This is called the "slot effect". The
combined sails fit into an imaginary aerofoil outline, so that the
most forward sails are more in line with the wind, whereas the more
aft sails are more in line with the course followed. The combined
efficiency of this sail plan is greater than the sum of each sail
used in isolation.
More detailed aspects include specific control of the sail's shape,
e.g.:
• reefing, or reducing the sail area in stronger wind
• altering sail shape to make it flatter in high winds
• raking the mast when going upwind (to tilt the sail towards the
rear, this being more stable)
• providing sail twist to cope with gusty conditions
Hull Trim
Hull Trim is the adjustment of a boat's loading so as to change its
fore-and-aft attitude in the water.
In small boats, it is done by
positioning the crew. In larger boats the weight of a person has
less effect on the hull trim, but it can be adjusted by shifting
gear, fuel, water, or supplies. Different hull trim efforts are
required for different kinds of boats and different conditions. Here
are just a few examples.
In a lightweight racing dinghy like a
Thistle, the hull should be kept level, on its designed water line
for best performance in all conditions.
In many small boats, weight
too far aft can cause drag by submerging the transom, especially in
light to moderate winds. Weight too far forward can cause the bow to
dig into the waves.
In heavy winds, a boat with its bow too low may
capsize by pitching forward over its bow (pitch-pole) or dive under
the waves (submarine). On a run in heavy winds, the forces on the
sails tend to drive a boat's bow down, so the crew weight is moved
far aft.
Points of sail
The points of sail are the most important parts of sail theory to
remember. The wind, or no go zone, is about 45° either side of the
true wind, for a racing hull and sail plan optimized for upwind
work. More commonly and on cruising sailplans, the best angle
achievable upwind is 50° to 55° to the true wind. A boat cannot sail
directly into the wind; attempting to do so is called luffing. There
are 5 main points of sail. In order from the edge of the no go zone
to directly downwind they are:
• close haul (22° to the apparent wind)
• close reach (half way between close hauled and a beam reach)
• beam reach (90° to the apparent wind)
• broad reach (22.5° away from directly downwind sailing)
• running (directly downwind)
The sail trim (and, on smaller boats, centre board/dagger board
position) on a boat is relative to the point of sail one is on: on a
beam reach sails are half way out, on a run sails are all the way
out, and close hauled sails are pulled in very tightly. A large
proportion of the skill of sailing is in trimming the sails
correctly for direction and strength of the wind.
Heeling
When a boat leans over to one side under wind pressure, it's called
'heeling'. When any large ship is listing heavily, perhaps due to
damage, it can also said to be heeling.
As a sailing boat heels over
beyond a certain angle, it begins to sail less efficiently. Several
forces can counteract this movement.
• The buoyancy of that part of the hull which is being submerged
tends to bring the boat upright.
• Raising the centreboard can paradoxically reduce heeling, because
it increases leeway.
• A weighted keel, which can in larger boats be canted from side to
side, provides additional force to right the boat.
• The crew may move onto the high (upwind) side of the boat, called
hiking, changing the centre of gravity significantly in a small
boat. They can trapeze if the boat is designed for this (see Dinghy
sailing).
• The underwater shape of the hull relative to the sails can be
designed to make the boat tend to turn upwind when it heels
excessively: this reduces the force on the sails, and allows the
boat to right itself. This is known as rounding up.
• The boat can be turned upwind to produce the same effect.
• Wind can be spilled from the sails by 'sheeting out', i.e.
loosening the sail.
• The sail shape can be altered to reduce its efficiency e.g.
tightening the downhaul (see list of nautical terms)
• The sail area can be reduced. This manoeuvre is known as Reefing.
• Lastly, as the boat rolls farther over, wind spills from the top
of the sail and the angle of attack lessens the wind's force.
Most of the above effects can be used to right a heeling boat and to
keep the boat sailing efficiently: if however the boat heels beyond
a certain point of stability, it can capsize.
A boat is capsized
when the tip of the mast is in the water. Yachts are traditionally
divided into non-capsizable (which means that they have a heavy keel
which in normal weather should stabilize the vessel) and
non-drowning (which usually means that the vessel has a centerboard
and even in normal circumstances can be capsized, but will not
sink).
Sailing terminology
Sailors use traditional nautical terms for the parts of or
directions on a vessel; starboard (right), port (left), forward or
fore (front), aft (rearward), bow (forward part of the hull), stern
(aft part of the hull), beam (the widest part). Vertical spars are
masts, horizontal spars are booms (if they can hit the sailor),
gaffs (if they are too high to reach) or poles (if they cannot hit
the sailor).
Rope and lines
Rope is the term used only for raw material; once a section of
rope is designated for a particular purpose on a vessel, it
generally is called a line, as in outhaul line or dock line.
A very
thick line is considered a cable. Lines that are attached to sails
to control their shapes are called sheets, as in mainsheet If a rope
is made of wire, it maintains its rope name as in 'wire rope'
halyard.
Lines (generally steel cables) that support masts are stationary and
are collectively known as a vessel's standing rigging, and
individually as shrouds or stays (the stay running forward from a
mast to the bow is called the forestay or headstay).
Moveable lines that control sails or other equipment are known
collectively as a vessel's running rigging. Lines that raise sails
are called halyards while those that strike them are called
downhauls or cunninghams. Lines that adjust (trim) the sails are
called sheets. These are often referred to using the name of the
sail they control (such as main sheet, or jib sheet). Sail trim may
also be controlled with smaller lines attached to the forward
section of a boom; such a line is called a vang, or a kicker in the
United Kingdom.
Lines used to tie a boat up when alongside are called docklines,
docking cables or mooring warps.
Some lines are referred to as ropes: A bell rope (to ring the bell),
a bolt rope (attached to the edge of a sail for extra strength), a
foot rope (on old square riggers for the sailors to stand on while
reefing or furling the sails), and a tiller rope (to temporarily
hold the tiller and keep the boat on course). A rode is what keeps
an anchor attached to the boat when the anchor is in use. It may be
chain, rope, or a combination of the two.
Sailing regulations
There are three basic rules for avoiding a collision at sea, but
this is a simplification of a detailed set of regulations:
1. A yacht using sails as motive power on port tack gives way to one
on starboard tack.
2. The more maneuverable vessel gives way to the less maneuverable
vessel. It is generally assumed that this means that power 'gives
way' to sail, but this is not always the case.
It is prudent for a
small sailing vessel to stay out of the way of large power driven
ships by making an early and obvious alteration in course to signal
both recognition of a potential collision situation and that
avoiding action has been taken.
It is mandatory, by port and harbour
regulations, that sailing vessels shall stay clear of shipping in a
buoyed channel.
3. If a collision is imminent both vessels must take avoiding action
even if one vessel (this is the 'stand-on' vessel) would normally
take no action. Not to do so, if there is an opportunity, may make
the sailor the guilty party at an inquiry.
The use of the term
'right of way' is borrowed from yacht racing environment, does not
appear in internationally recognised rules for vessels not racing
and is inappropriate to all other vessels and situations .
Power driven vessel A that is on a potential collision course
crossing the port side of power driven vessel B must give way.
Sailing boats with their sails set on the same side of the boat,
require that the windward boat shall give way to the leeward boat.
Vessel A overtaking vessel B normally must keep clear of them .
Head
on collisions are avoided by vessels both turning to Starboard.
If these rules are not followed in a yacht race, a protest may be
called by one of the skippers. A hearing of protestor and protestee
by the protest committee panel will decide who wins the rule breach.
However there are many other rules besides these, that are
applicable and sailors are required to know these, which are
fundamental boating safety rules including:
• The "rules of the road" or International Regulations for
Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGS) set forth by the
International Maritime Organization are particularly relevant to
sailboats because they may be sharing the same body of water as
powered vessels, who are bound by the COLREGS.
• The IALA International Association of Lighthouse Authorities
standards for lateral marks, lights, signals, and buoyage and rules
designed to support safe navigation.
• The SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea) regulations place the
obligations for safety on the owners and operators of any boat
including sailboats. These regulations specify the safety equipment
needed and emergency procedures to be used appropriate to the boat's
size and its sailing range.
• When racing, all sailing vessels must follow the Racing Rules of
Sailing promulgated by the International Sailing Federation as well
as any prescriptions (additional rules) given by the national
governing body and organisation running the event. When a boat that
is racing encounters one that is not, the racing boat must comply
with the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
with respect to the non-racing boat. It is the custom amongst
sailors that a sailing boat cruising will not normally get in the
way of a racing fleet. Similarly, all sailors give way to divers'
boats and fishers for reasons of safety & courtesy.
After sunset all boats racing are bound by the International
Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGS) rather than
the Racing Rules of Sailing.
Sailboat racing
Sailboat racing ranges from single person dinghy racing to large
boats with 10 or 20 crew and from small boats costing a few hundred
dollars to multi-million dollar America's Cup or Sydney to Hobart
Yacht Race campaigns. The costs of participating in the high end
large boat competitions make this type of sailing one of the most
expensive sports in the world. However, there are relatively
inexpensive ways to get involved in sailboat racing, such as at
community sailing clubs, and in some relatively inexpensive dinghy
and small catamaran classes.
Additionally high schools and colleges
may offer sailboat racing programs through the Interscholastic
Sailing Association (in the USA) and the Intercollegiate Sailing
Association (in the USA and some parts of Canada).
Under these
conditions, sailboat racing can be comparable to or less expensive
than sports such as golf and skiing. Sailboat racing is one of the
few sports in which people of all ages can regularly compete with
and against each other.
Most sailboat racing is done in sheltered coastal or inland waters.
However, in terms of endurance and risk to life, ocean races such as
the Volvo Ocean Race, the solo VELUX 5 Oceans Race, and the non-stop
solo Vendée Globe, rate as some of the most extreme and dangerous
sporting events.
Not only do participants compete for days with
little rest, but an unexpected storm, a single equipment failure, or
collision with an ice floe could result in the sailboat being
disabled or sunk hundreds or thousands of miles from search and
rescue.
The sport of Sailboat racing is governed by the International
Sailing Federation (ISAF), and the rules under which competitors
race are the Racing Rules of Sailing, which can be found on the ISAF
web site.
